Complete Guide to Making Cutting Boards Types, Woods, Tools, and Step-by-Step Tutorials

Cutting boards are one of the most essential tools in every kitchen—and one of the most popular woodworking projects for both beginners and experienced makers. They are simple enough to start with, yet versatile enough to let you practice almost every fundamental woodworking skill: milling, gluing, sanding, shaping, and finishing. That makes cutting boards a perfect entry point for anyone who wants to improve their craftsmanship or even start a small woodworking business.

In this complete guide, I want to walk you step-by-step through everything I’ve learned about making high-quality cutting boards—from choosing the right wood species to understanding grain orientation, selecting the right tools, following a proper workflow, and applying a safe food-grade finish. My goal is to help you avoid costly mistakes, speed up your learning curve, and confidently create cutting boards that look professional, last long, and even sell well.

This guide is designed for three main types of readers:

● DIY Beginners Who Want to Build Their First Cutting Board

If you’ve never made a cutting board before, you’ll learn a clear, beginner-friendly workflow that covers all the basics—from choosing wood to sanding and finishing.

● Woodworkers Who Want to Improve Their Skills

If you already have some experience, you’ll find advanced tips for grain selection, milling precision, glue-up perfection, end-grain construction, and premium finishing techniques.

● Buyers or Researchers Looking for the Best Cutting Board Type

You’ll learn the differences between end-grain, edge-grain, and face-grain boards, which woods are the safest, and which design is best for longevity and performance.

Throughout this article, I will also include downloadable resources, tool recommendations, and woodworking plans you can use immediately—whether you’re building for yourself, for gifts, or for selling.

By the end of this guide, you’ll have everything you need to create your first (or next) cutting board with confidence and professional results.

What Makes a Good Cutting Board? (Buyer’s Guide + Wood Types)

A high-quality cutting board is more than just a kitchen accessory — it is a combination of the right wood, correct grain orientation, proper construction, and food-safe finishing. In this section, I break down everything that makes a cutting board durable, safe, functional, and long-lasting.

1 Understanding Grain Orientation

Grain orientation has the biggest impact on durability, knife-friendliness, and board longevity. There are three main types used in woodworking:

• End-Grain Cutting Boards

Wood fibers stand vertically (like cutting into a bundle of straws)
Considered the most premium type
Self-healing: cuts close up naturally
Gentle on knives
Preferred by professional chefs
More difficult and expensive to produce
Heaviest and most durable

Best for: high-end kitchen use, gifts, and products with premium pricing

• Edge-Grain Cutting Boards

Wood strips are glued side by side with grains running horizontally
Strong and stable
Easier to make compared to end-grain
More affordable for consumers
More durable than face-grain but less knife-friendly than end-grain

Best for: everyday use, beginner woodworking projects

• Face-Grain Cutting Boards

Wood fibers run flat (same as a table surface)
Showcases the most beautiful wood patterns
Least durable for heavy chopping
Can develop knife marks quickly
Primarily used for serving boards, charcuterie, or display boards

Best for: charcuterie boards, serving trays, decorative pieces

2 Best Wood Types for Cutting Boards

Not all woods are created equal. The best cutting board woods must be:

Hard enough to resist knife cuts
Dense but not overly porous
Non-toxic and food-safe
Stable and resistant to movement
Able to accept food-safe finishes

Below are the top choices used by professional woodworkers:

• Maple (Hard Maple / Sugar Maple)

Industry standard for cutting boards
Tight grain, low porosity
Very hard and stable
Naturally light color with clean appearance
Resistant to bacteria

Why it’s excellent: perfect balance of hardness and safety

• Black Walnut

Premium dark wood with elegant color
More gentle on knives than maple
Slightly softer but still durable
High-demand for luxury cutting boards
Great for contrasting patterns

Why it’s excellent: high value, beautiful aesthetics, ideal for premium boards

• Cherry

Smooth, warm reddish tone
Ages beautifully (deepens over time)
Slightly softer than maple
Easy to mill and glue
Works well in combination with walnut and maple

Why it’s excellent: beautiful color variation and stable performance

• Teak

High natural oil content
Water-resistant
Excellent for humid climates
Dense and long-lasting
Slightly more abrasive to knives due to silica content

Why it’s excellent: extremely durable for tropical or moist environments

• Oak (White Oak Only)

Hard and durable
Attractive grain pattern
White oak is closed-grain and can be safe
Red oak should be avoided due to open pores

Why it’s excellent: affordable, strong wood if you choose white oak only

3 Toxic vs. Food-Safe Woods

Some woods are naturally safe, while others can cause irritation or contamination.

Food-Safe Woods

Maple
Walnut
Cherry
Teak
White Oak
Beech
Acacia

These woods have low toxicity and tight grain suitable for contact with food.

Woods to Avoid

Pine (too soft, resinous)
Cedar (aromatic oils, toxic compounds)
Red Oak (open pores that trap bacteria)
Rosewood (contains natural toxins)
Iroko (irritating dust and oils)
Eucalyptus (unstable, too porous)

These woods may split easily, absorb moisture, or leach harmful compounds.

4 Food-Grade Finishing Requirements

A good cutting board must be finished with safe oils and conditioners. Food-grade finishing provides:

Protection from moisture
Enhanced wood appearance
Improved durability
Safer, more hygienic surface

Recommended Food-Safe Finishes

Mineral Oil (Pure, Food-Grade)
Penetrates deeply, prevents drying out.
Beeswax
Often mixed with mineral oil for a richer conditioner.
Tung Oil (100% Pure)
Hardens into a durable, water-resistant finish.
Walnut Oil (Heat-Treated)
Natural and safe, but not for people with nut allergies.

Finishes to Avoid

Vegetable oil
Olive oil
Coconut oil (non-fractionated)
Varnish
Polyurethane
Lacquer

These can turn rancid or create an unsafe surface for food.

Tools You Need to Start Making Cutting Boards

Creating high-quality cutting boards doesn’t require a full professional workshop, but having the right tools will dramatically improve the precision, safety, and final results. Below is a complete breakdown of the essential tools for beginners, plus an advanced toolset for woodworkers who want to build premium end-grain or large-format boards.

1 Beginner Tool Set

These tools are perfect if you’re just starting your woodworking journey. They cover the essentials for making simple but high-quality edge-grain or face-grain cutting boards.

• Table Saw (or Circular Saw + Guide Rail)

Ideal for ripping boards to consistent widths.
A table saw offers stability and accuracy, but a circular saw with a straight guide can work for beginners.

• Planer (Optional but Highly Recommended)

Ensures the wood is perfectly flat and uniform in thickness.
Helps remove milling marks and improves glue-up results.

• Random Orbital Sander

Used for smoothing the surface after glue-up.
Works best with a grit sequence such as 80 → 120 → 180 → 220.

• Clamps

You will need at least 4–6 clamps for proper glue pressure.
F-style, bar clamps, or parallel clamps are ideal.

• Wood Glue (Food-Safe — Titebond III)

Waterproof, food-safe, strong bond strength.
Titebond III is considered the industry standard for cutting boards.

• Router (Optional for Edge Shaping)

Allows you to round over the edges for a comfortable hand feel.
Useful for adding decorative profiles or juice grooves later.

2 Advanced Tool Set for End-Grain Boards

End-grain cutting boards require more cutting, milling, and re-gluing steps. These tools help you achieve a perfectly flat, durable, and professional-grade board.

• Jointer

Flattens one face and squares the edge before planing.
Essential for boards that require extremely tight glue joints.

• Planer (Needed for End-Grain Projects)

Used before glue-up to create consistent thickness.
Helps remove uneven surfaces or slight warping.

• Table Saw with High-Quality Blade

Necessary for precise crosscuts and for cutting the first glue-up into strips.
A good blade reduces burn marks and keeps joints clean.

• Router Table + Jig

Perfect for cutting perfectly smooth juice grooves.
Helps create uniform edges and rounded corners.

• Drum Sander (Game-Changer for End-Grain)

Smooths end-grain surfaces without tear-out.
Allows you to flatten the board safely, unlike a planer (which can break end-grain boards).

• Belt Sander (Optional but Useful)

Helps remove difficult glue lines and flatten small imperfections.

3 Useful Jigs & Accessories

These add-ons increase accuracy, reduce errors, and speed up your workflow.

• Glue-Up Jig

Keeps panels flat during glue-up.
Prevents warping and helps align pieces perfectly.

• Juice Groove Jig

Allows you to cut a consistent groove around the board using a router.
Provides a professional look for serving and charcuterie boards.

• Corner Round-Over Bits

Used with a router to soften edges.
Available in various radiuses (⅛", ¼", ⅜").

• Digital Calipers or Thickness Gauge

Helps ensure consistent board thickness.
Useful for matching pieces before glue-up.

• Sanding Blocks or Foam Interface Pads

Useful for hand-sanding curves and edges.
Helps prevent swirl marks.

Step-by-Step: How to Make Your First Cutting Board

Making your first cutting board is one of the best entry-level woodworking projects. It teaches you essential skills—milling, gluing, sanding, shaping, and finishing—while producing something functional and beautiful. Follow the steps below to create a durable, food-safe cutting board that will last for years.

1 Choose Your Wood

Start by selecting a hardwood that is safe for food contact and stable enough to handle moisture, knife impact, and long-term use.

Recommended woods:

Hard Maple (most popular for durability + closed grain)
Walnut (premium look, rich color)
Cherry (warms with age, stable)
Teak (naturally oily, water-resistant)
Beech (affordable and food-safe)

Tips when choosing wood:

Avoid softwoods like pine (too soft and porous)
Choose boards with straight grain to minimize warping
Avoid knots, cracks, and defects
Ensure wood is kiln-dried to 6–8% moisture
Thickness between ¾"–1½" is ideal for beginners

2 Milling Process

Milling ensures your board is flat, square, and ready for glue-up. Proper milling is the difference between a perfect cutting board and one that warps.

Steps:

Joint one face flat on a jointer.
Joint one edge 90° to the face.
Plane the opposite face to the desired thickness.
Rip into strips using a table saw or circular saw with guide.
Check for uniform thickness—crucial for clean glue lines.

Important reminders:

Each strip should be the same width and thickness.
If your board rocks on the table, continue milling until flat.
For beginners with minimal tools, consider buying pre-surfaced S4S lumber.

3 Glue-Up

Glue-up determines the strength and lifespan of your cutting board. A clean and even clamping setup prevents twisting and visible glue lines.

Tools needed:

Clamps (bar clamps or pipe clamps)
Food-safe glue (Titebond III recommended)
Cauls (optional but helpful)
Painter’s tape or silicone brush

Glue-up steps:

Arrange your strips in your desired order (mix colors for aesthetic).
Apply a thin, even glue layer to each mating surface.
Clamp firmly but avoid over-tightening (can squeeze out too much glue).
Check alignment—use cauls to keep the board flat if needed.
Clean excess glue after 10–15 minutes for easier sanding later.

Pro tips:

Leave the board clamped for at least 6–8 hours.
Place clamps both above and below to prevent bowing.
Align end-grain orientation for strength (if making edge-grain or end-grain boards).

4 Sanding & Shaping

Sanding shapes your cutting board and gives it a silky, professional finish.

Sanding grit progression:

80 grit → remove glue and flatten
120 grit → smooth surface
180 grit → refine
220 grit → final finishing prep

Shaping steps:

Flatten the board with a drum sander or hand sander.
Round edges using a router with a ⅛" or ¼" round-over bit.
Chamfer edges (optional) for a more modern look.
Sand all faces and sides thoroughly.

Tips:

Always sand both sides evenly to avoid warping.
Do not skip grits; it leaves scratches that appear after finishing.
Mist the board lightly with water to raise the grain, then sand again.

5 Food-Safe Finishing

A good finish protects your cutting board from moisture and enhances the grain.

Best food-safe finishes:

Mineral oil (odorless, affordable, great base coat)
Beeswax + mineral oil conditioner
Pure tung oil (100% natural, water-resistant)

How to apply:

Saturate the board with warm mineral oil.
Allow the oil to soak for 20–30 minutes.
Wipe off excess with a lint-free cloth.
Apply 2–3 coats for best durability.
Finish with a beeswax conditioner layer for a satin feel.

Do NOT use:

Vegetable oil (turns rancid)
Olive oil (sticky)
Lacquer or polyurethane (not food-safe)

6 Optional Juice Groove Tutorial

A juice groove adds function and helps catch liquids—especially useful for meat preparation or charcuterie boards.

Tools required:

Router
Juice groove jig (store-bought or homemade)
½" or ⅜" round-nose bit

Steps:

Measure a ½" to ¾" inset from the board edge.
Secure your jig to prevent movement.
Set your router depth to ⅛"–¼".
Slowly follow the jig path around the board.
Sand the groove by hand for a smooth touch.

Tips:

Take shallow passes to avoid burn marks.
Use a plunge router for clean entry and exit.
Practice on scrap wood before routing the actual board.

Best Cutting Board Design Ideas (Photo & Plan Inspiration)

Exploring different cutting board designs can help you discover your personal style—whether you prefer minimalist builds, premium high-end boards, or artistic pieces that double as décor. Below are some of the most popular, best-selling, and most versatile cutting board design ideas you can use for your next project.

1 Minimalist Cutting Boards

Minimalist boards are clean, elegant, and easy to make. They focus on simplicity and functionality, making them perfect for beginners or anyone who loves a modern kitchen aesthetic.

Characteristics

Straight, clean lines
No complicated joinery
Subtle round-over or chamfer on edges
Often made from a single hardwood species
Smooth satin finish

Popular Styles

Rectangular slab board with soft rounded corners
Slim-profile board for daily slicing
Large prep board without handles
Monochrome hardwood boards (maple-only, walnut-only, teak-only)

Why They Sell Well

Timeless and universal
Affordable materials
Perfect for gift sets

2 Charcuterie Boards

Charcuterie boards are stylish, presentation-focused boards used for serving cheese, meats, and appetizers. These boards lean toward artistic shapes and natural wood aesthetics.

Characteristics

Organic shapes with flowing curves
Live-edge options
Longer, narrow serving style
Decorative handles or leather straps
High-gloss or satin oil finish

Popular Styles

Paddle-style charcuterie board
Long grazing board (80–120 cm)
Live-edge serving board
Wavy silhouette board
Round or oval platter boards

Why They Sell Well

High-value gift item
Popular for weddings and holidays
Works well with engraved personalization

3 End-Grain Checkerboard Boards

End-grain boards are considered the premium class of cutting boards. They are extremely durable, gentle on knives, and have a visually stunning “checkerboard” or mosaic pattern.

Characteristics

End-grain orientation (wood fibers vertical)
Self-healing surface
High density and longevity
Complex glue-up pattern
Excellent stain resistance

Popular Patterns

Traditional checkerboard (maple + walnut)
Complex mosaic multi-species pattern
Brick pattern
Random-block end grain board
Striped end-grain hybrid

Why They Sell Well

Considered a luxury item
Premium pricing potential
High demand among chefs and culinary enthusiasts

4 Resin River Boards

Resin river boards combine hardwood slabs with translucent or colored resin, creating an artistic “river” effect. Although more decorative, they are widely used as charcuterie boards or showpiece prep boards.

Characteristics

Wood + epoxy resin combination
Creative color options (ocean blue, emerald, smoky black)
Works well with live-edge slabs
UV-resistant resin recommended
Polished glass-like finish

Popular Styles

Single river board (one resin strip between two wood edges)
Dual river board (two resin channels)
Ocean-theme wave board
Galaxy swirl resin design
Resin + engraving combo board

Why They Sell Well

Highly aesthetic and unique
Perfect for display kitchens
Popular for gifts and special occasions

5 Bonus Design Ideas (Extra Inspiration)

If you want additional creativity for niche buyers or special occasions, here are more ideas to expand your portfolio:

Specialty Design Variations

Handle-cutout boards (modern oval, circle, or square grip)
Round pizza-style cutting board
Serving tray cutting board with metal handles
Two-tone diagonal board
Butcher-style thick block boards
Hexagon or geometric-shaped boards

Holiday & Seasonal Themes

Christmas tree-shaped boards
Heart-shaped Valentine boards
Pumpkin-themed boards for fall
Laser-engraved seasonal messages

Professional & Culinary Designs

Oversized butcher block for chefs
Reversible double-sided prep board
Cutting board with integrated juice groove
Carving board with meat rests

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Even though cutting boards are considered beginner-friendly woodworking projects, many woodworkers—beginners and even intermediate makers—still make mistakes that affect durability, appearance, and food safety. Here are the most common pitfalls you should avoid:

1 Choosing the Wrong Type of Wood

Many beginners use any wood they can find, but not all woods are suitable for food-contact projects.

Common mistakes:

Using softwoods like pine, fir, or cedar (too soft and too porous).
Using open-grain hardwoods such as red oak (absorbs moisture easily).
Using toxic woods without checking safety lists first.
Mixing woods with different hardness levels, causing uneven wear.

How to avoid it:

Stick to food-safe hardwoods (maple, walnut, cherry, teak).
Choose woods with similar Janka hardness rating.
Avoid woods with high odor or oil content unless verified safe.

2 Incorrect Glue Selection

Glue failures are one of the biggest reasons cutting boards fall apart.

Common mistakes:

Using non–waterproof glue like Titebond I.
Using epoxy not rated for food contact.
Applying too little glue during glue-up.
Not spreading glue evenly across the entire joint.

How to avoid it:

Always use Titebond III (waterproof + food-safe).
Apply glue using a roller or brush for full coverage.
Clamp evenly and allow full curing time (minimum 24 hours).

3 Over-Sanding or Uneven Sanding

Too much sanding can destroy the board’s flatness and affect finishing.

Common mistakes:

Skipping grits (e.g., going from 80 straight to 220).
Over-sanding edges so they become too round.
Using a random orbital sander too aggressively.
Not flattening the board before sanding.

How to avoid it:

Follow a proper sanding sequence: 80 → 120 → 180 → 220.
Use light pressure, let the sander do the work.
Keep edges consistent (round-over or chamfer, but controlled).
Use a straightedge to ensure flatness before finishing.

4 Using the Wrong Finish

Finishing mistakes can lead to sticky surfaces, rancid smells, or food-unsafe boards.

Common mistakes:

Using finishing oils not meant for food contact (linseed, Danish oil).
Applying vegetable oils (can turn rancid).
Applying too much finish in one coat.
Not letting the finish absorb fully.

How to avoid it:

Use food-grade mineral oil as the base finish.
Seal with beeswax or board butter for durability.
Apply multiple thin coats instead of one thick one.
Let the board cure fully before first use.

5 Visible Glue Lines

This happens when the milling and glue-up process is not done correctly.

Common mistakes:

Boards not perfectly jointed before glue-up.
Using boards with moisture content differences.
Not applying enough clamping pressure.
Using mismatched wood tones without planning.

How to avoid it:

Joint edges properly before glue-up.
Use boards with similar moisture levels (6–10%).
Dry-fit first to check alignment.
Apply even clamp pressure from both sides.

6 Warping After Finishing

A warped cutting board is usually the result of moisture imbalance.

Common mistakes:

Finishing only one side of the board.
Using wood that has not acclimated to your workshop.
Exposing the board to extreme heat (sunlight, heaters).
Milling boards too thin.

How to avoid it:

Always finish both sides of the board.
Let wood acclimate in your shop for 48–72 hours.
Store the board flat during curing.
Keep board thickness around ¾ to 1¼ inches.

7 Poor Design Choices

Some aesthetic decisions compromise functionality.

Common mistakes:

Adding handles too close to the edges.
Choosing a design that’s too thin or too small.
Overcomplicating the pattern for a beginner’s skill level.
Adding resin without proper sealing.

How to avoid it:

Keep designs simple for your first builds.
Follow recommended sizes (12" x 18" for standard boards).
Test handle comfort before committing.
Use resin only when you understand sealing and curing.

8 Neglecting Maintenance Instructions

A great cutting board can fail quickly if the end user doesn’t maintain it.

Common mistakes:

Not instructing customers about oiling schedules.
Ignoring the need for reconditioning.
Washing in a dishwasher (ruins wood instantly).
Leaving the board soaking in water.

How to avoid it:

Provide a simple care card with every board you sell.
Recommend oiling once a month (or more for heavy use).
Tell users to wipe immediately after washing.
Educate buyers on proper storage.

Cutting Boards That Sell Fast (For Woodworking Business)

When I talk about cutting boards that sell quickly, I base it on years of testing designs, observing buyer behavior, and refining what works in real marketplaces. Some boards consistently move faster than others—not because they are easier to make, but because they strike the perfect balance between function, visual appeal, and gift-readiness. Below are the categories that always perform well in my shop and in the shops of the makers I’ve mentored.

1 Seasonal Boards

Seasonal cutting boards are some of the easiest products for me to sell, especially when I want a quick revenue boost around specific holidays. Buyers love themed items they can gift or display.

Here are the seasonal boards that consistently sell fast:

Christmas Cutting Boards
I make boards with simple tree silhouettes, reindeer patterns, snowflakes, or holiday greetings. I’ve found that walnut and maple combinations look the most premium.
Valentine’s Day Boards
Heart-shaped boards, charcuterie paddles with romantic engravings, or small cheese boards are always in demand for couples.
Thanksgiving Boards
Turkey engravings, harvest motifs, and rustic-style boards made from cherry or hickory often sell out before the season even starts.
Mother’s Day & Father’s Day Boards
Personalized messages, family name engravings, or simple decorative borders work extremely well, especially when marketed as “gift-ready.”
Wedding & Anniversary Boards
Most of my sales here come from personalized name + date engravings. Paddle boards and classic rectangular boards are the most popular formats.

2 Personalized Engraving Boards

If I had to choose just one category that moves the fastest, it would be personalized boards. Customers love anything custom, and engraved boards make ideal gifts for housewarmings, weddings, and corporate events.

Here are the styles I’ve learned sell the best:

Family Name Boards
These always perform well during holiday seasons. I often use maple for a bright, clean engraving contrast.
Monogram Boards
Simple, elegant, and fast to produce—perfect for paddle boards or circular cheese boards.
Recipe Engraving Boards
When customers send me handwritten recipes, I convert them into engravable formats. These sell at a premium because they’re sentimental.
Logo Boards for Corporate Gifts
These provide bulk orders—sometimes 20–100 pieces at a time. I usually standardize the size to streamline production.
Special Occasion Engravings
Things like “New Home,” “Retirement,” or “Baby Announcement” turn a simple board into a memorable keepsake.

3 Charcuterie Boards

Charcuterie boards remain one of my top-performing products because they’re not just functional—they’re decorative. People use them for parties, gifts, or kitchen display pieces.

These are the types that sell best:

Long Charcuterie Boards
Great for grazing tables. I often use walnut for a dramatic, upscale look.
Live-Edge Charcuterie Boards
These come with a natural edge that adds rustic appeal. They are perfect for customers who want something “raw” and earthy.
Wavy-Shaped Boards
Modern, eye-catching, and Instagram-friendly. These sell especially well to younger buyers.
Paddle-Style Charcuterie Boards
With a comfortable handle and a wide serving area, this is the easiest board to market as a gift item.
Hybrid Resin Boards
When I add a subtle resin river or accent, the board becomes a premium decorative piece. These usually sell at the highest price point.

My Final Take as a Woodworker

Whenever I need fast-moving inventory, I focus on:

seasonal boards near holidays,
personalized engraved boards year-round, and
charcuterie boards for premium buyers.

These categories consistently bring in repeat customers, higher margins, and bulk orders—making them ideal products for any woodworking business.

As I build this comprehensive guide, I also rely on several cornerstone resources that I’ve organized on my main woodworking hub. These internal references help me streamline my workflow, choose better materials, improve my joinery techniques, and expand the range of projects I can create. I keep these resources accessible so I can quickly revisit essential fundamentals or explore new ideas whenever I need them.

My Free Woodworking Plans Library

Whenever I design or refine a cutting board project, I often refer back to my collection of Free Woodworking Plans. This resource helps me validate measurements, compare construction methods, and pull inspiration for variations such as paddle boards, end-grain layouts, or custom-shaped charcuterie boards.

Woodworking Projects That Sell

Since cutting boards are among the most profitable small-format woodworking items, I always check my curated list of Woodworking Projects That Sell to see which styles are trending. This helps me decide which board shapes, engravings, or material combinations I should produce next, especially when preparing for seasonal demand or marketplace listings.

Beginner Woodworking Guide

I also return to my Beginner Woodworking Guide whenever I need to revisit core fundamentals—tool setup, milling basics, glue-up strategies, and finishing workflow. Even as a seasoned woodworker, reinforcing the basics ensures every cutting board I make meets the quality standards I expect from myself.

Complete DIY Woodworking Library

For deeper study, I maintain my Complete DIY Woodworking Library, a central archive of lessons, reference tables, jigs, shop tips, grain behavior charts, and long-form tutorials. When I’m developing new variations of cutting boards—like hybrid resin boards, laminated handles, or complex end-grain patterns—this library becomes my primary technical reference.